WORLD ASSOCIATION OF ZOOS AND AQUARIUMS
- UNITED FOR CONSERVATION -
Building a Future for Wildlife
The World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy
WAZA EXECUTIVE OFFICE, BERNE , SWITZERLAND , 2005
Editor: Peter J. S. Olney Publisher: WAZA Executive Office Graphic Arts Firm Bern, Switzerland Citation: WAZA (2005): Building a Future for Wildlife - The World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy. |
Cover photograph: Zoo-bred Przewalski’s mares © Christian Walzer, |
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Sponsors: WAZA wishes to thank the |
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| Foreword |  |
I congratulate the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) and its partners on completing the important task of preparing this World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WZACS). It is a timely document that refines the previous thinking of the 1993 World Zoo Conservation Strategy and brings ex situ institutions into the mainstream of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. This Strategy provides a common philosophy for zoos and aquariums across the globe and defines the standards and policies with which you hope to achieve your conservation goals. Your first Strategy was published in a time of great hope - the days of Rio and the beginnings of the Convention on Biological Diversity - and was guided by IUCN’s own World Conservation Strategy. Since that time, the situation for the environment has not improved and the world’s attention is focusing on economics and security.
In this context, the critical role of zoos and aquariums within conservation is more important than ever. Zoos and aquariums are in a unique position: that of providing conservation in a genuinely integrated way. For the young people of the world’s cities, zoos and aquariums are often the first contact with nature and so you are the incubator of the conservationists of tomorrow. The research you conduct is vital to our understanding of the components of biodiversity and their interactions. The public awareness campaigns and communication programmes you oversee are critical in making the general public understand both the utilitarian and the aesthetic importance of nature. Your efforts to build capacity, and transfer technology to colleagues in other parts of the world, will ensure the longer term contribution of zoos and aquariums to biodiversity conservation, while also fostering a spirit of collaboration and cooperation much needed in our troubled world. Finally, the financial support that you gather for conservation in the field will demonstrate the commitment of urban populations to maintaining the wild areas of the Earth. Our future is uncertain. However, as WAZA uses this Strategy to mobilize and enthuse the more than 600 million visitors that come to your facilities each year, your role in helping to conserve our planet’s biodiversity is assured. A significant number of WAZA members are also IUCN Members and this document provides a blueprint for their contribution to implementing IUCN’s Programme and Vision of ‘a just world that values and conserves nature’. As partners in conservation, IUCN welcomes the World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy and wishes you all success in implementing it. Achim Steiner |
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The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), then known as the International Union of the Directors of Zoological Gardens, produced its first conservation strategy in 1993. This ground-breaking document articulated a vision of the role of zoos and aquariums in conservation for the next 10 years; it was the first time that the world zoo and aquarium community had attempted such an exercise. The document was the result of international collaboration by many eminent professionals, was translated into many languages, and has been the conservation guide for zoos and aquariums ever since. In 2002, in preparation for the 10th anniversary of the original strategy, a small but important meeting was held. Ulie Seal, then Chairman of the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) of IUCN, now sadly deceased, Bill Conway, then Director of the Wildlife Conservation Society, Bert de Boer, Coordinator of the 1993 strategy and Gunther Nogge, Director of the Cologne Zoo, met to discuss the structure of a new strategic document that would build on the success of the original, but also demonstrate other ways in which zoos and aquariums could successfully support conservation activities. This document is the fruit of their deliberation and an enormous amount of work by a large number of people since that initial meeting. When CBSG and WAZA met for their joint annual meetings in Vienna in August 2002, workshops were held to determine what the contents of a new strategy should be and how it should be structured. Chapter coordinators were appointed and a wide selection of collaborators identified for each chapter. Under the auspices of the WAZA Conservation Committee, chaired by Jo Gipps, the two-year process of creating, reading, editing, rewriting, changing and improving each chapter led to the formal adoption of the new draft strategy at the WAZA annual meeting in Taipei in November 2004. All those who have had input into this document are listed in Appendix 3, in alphabetical order. This list includes members of WAZA Council, WAZA Conservation Committee, the authors of each chapter and all those who collaborated and commented on them, attendees at CBSG and WAZA workshops, and a large number of individuals who have commented on parts, or the whole, of the document over the last two years. The list is long, full of familiar names of professionals from within and outside the zoo community, and hugely international; we thank them all, most sincerely. Their contributions have made this document what we hope it is: a truly international conservation strategy for the zoos and aquariums of the world for the next five to ten years. A few individuals deserve special mention: the World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy Core Group consisted of both of us, Miranda Stevenson, Peter Olney, Onnie Byers, Peter Dollinger, Chris West, Bert de Boer and Mark Reed (their affiliations are contained in Appendix 3). Miranda Stevenson coordinated the whole project with extreme care and good humour and Peter Olney edited the document, to his usual impeccable standard. Our thanks go to Peter Dollinger, the WAZA Executive Director, for his hard work and expertise in collation, layout and design of the document. We are most grateful to the core group for their time, energy and devotion to the project and to our colleagues from CBSG whose support was invaluable.
The 1993 strategy consisted of a Foundation Document and an Executive Summary. This new strategy will also include a Resource Manual (currently in preparation) which will be used by individual zoos and aquariums, by regional zoo associations, and by WAZA itself, to develop Action Plans to enable each to implement the strategy. This strategy is for all members of the world zoo and aquarium community, not just the members of WAZA. It is also a document that, we hope, will enable that community to articulate, for a more general audience, where it sees its conservation priorities lie in the future. As the Director General of IUCN states in his foreword, there is no doubt that zoos and aquariums have a vital role to play in the conservation of the biodiversity of our planet. We hope that this document describes how zoos and aquariums around the world can indeed play their part successfully and we commend it to you. |
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Ed McAlister |
Jo Gipps Chair, WAZA Conservation Committee |
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‘Today more and more of us live in cities and lose any |
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There are two quite simple reasons for having a World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WZACS). Zoo professionals worldwide would benefit from a cohesive document that provides a common set of goals. At the same time many people who are active in the fields of environmentalism and conservation, or who are merely concerned observers, with worries and questions about conservation and animal welfare, want to know whether they should support zoos. Thus a WZACS has at least to provide answers to fundamental questions whilst setting out best practice for the zoos and aquariums of the world. Why do zoos and aquariums exist? What is their unifying philosophy and purpose? What is their vision and relevance in a world faced with unprecedented challenges as the needs of humans and animals and plants seem to compete? How can they have a measurable influence on conservation in the wild? In short, what is the benefit of having zoos and aquariums and what successes can they already point to? The world zoo and aquarium community knows that it has a powerful part to play in achieving global sustainability. In answering these questions the community must inspire people who visit zoos to become part of the same movement. The first World Zoo Conservation Strategy (WZCS) was published over 10 years ago and was rooted in the IUCN World Conservation Strategy, ‘Caring for the Earth’, which in turn related to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development acceptance of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The WZCS has proved extremely valuable in informing readers of what zoos can actually do, and in establishing a basis of understanding and unified direction. This second document, the WZACS, defines and explains the strategic vision of the members of the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) in support of its overarching conservation mission. This foundation document sets out policies and standards to be reached under headings relating to the key functions and activities of all zoos and aquariums, however diverse, and focuses on the long-term demonstrable achievement of conservation. It is intended to provide a future blueprint for urgent local and collective action by zoos and aquariums worldwide through directed policies and a series of accompanying manuals containing more detailed procedures and examples of good practice. To be successful the WZACS must shape strategic thinking and guide hands-on practical work by WAZA members and, more widely, promote a sense of common purpose, leadership and partnership with fellow conservationists and environmentalists (Box 1). Publication of this second Strategy follows the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002 and it reflects the many changes in the external operating environment of all conservation organizations and also the shifts in the intrinsic, collective principles
and priorities of zoos and aquariums throughout the world. |
Box 1 What is WAZA? WAZA’S MISSION AND OBJECTIVESWAZA, the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums, is a global organization which unifies the principles and practices of over 1,000 zoos and aquariums, which receive over 600 million visitors annually, and sets standards for increasing achievement of conservation. The objectives of WAZA are to:
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Environmental threats and biodiversity loss Zoos and aquariums now operate in a world of accelerating environmental threats and reduction in biodiversity. In the last ten years climatic changes, over-exploitation of natural resources, increases in the negative impact of invasive species and overall environmental degradation have all continued. The value and vulnerability of species and ecosystems and their influence on humans have been poorly reflected in the media; public perception has been focused on crises of conflict, drought, famine and migration rather than root causes linked to the unsustainable use of natural resources. Similarly human development and demands on sustainability, and concerns about globalisation and corporatism, dominate international political agendas. Underlying everything is the continuing essential fact that there are too many human beings consuming far too great a proportion of the Earth’s natural resources to allow non-human species a share that secures their future. The predicted increase in human population and the pronounced inequality in distribution of wealth among and within nations, are two of the major problems facing humankind and, directly and indirectly, the conservation of species and habitats. ‘ At current levels of consumption of natural resources humanity needs three earth-sized planets to survive’
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Box 2 Illustrating Global Environment Trends
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Box 3 The Convention on Article 9 – ex situ conservation Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, and predominantly for the purpose of complementing in situ measures: |
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The role of zoos and aquariums In many countries historical and social perceptions of zoos as entertainment menageries still persist, and in some cases are justified. A sector frequently
hostile to zoos is the growing animal-rights and animal-welfare lobby, which emphasizes the interests of individual animals, rather than the conservation of species or eco-systems; further opposition comes from that part of the conservation movement which doubts the justification for removing animals from the wild. If zoos and aquariums are to play an active part in conservation they must face opposition head-on, by understanding criticisms, adapting where necessary and explaining their actions in a way that gains public support. They must also make clear to the general public that their mission is one of conservation, which is conducted in tandem with the highest welfare standards.
Within these wider contexts and alongside major trends, zoos and aquariums have to achieve and promote a clearer view of their unique role and the contribution they can make as part of a global conservation coalition. More coordination of activities and focus of resources towards high priorities need to be coupled with a wider application of good management practices, in particular continuous evaluation of the impact of key projects ( Boxes 4 and 5). Individual zoos and aquariums, and the zoo community, are pre-eminently suited to emphasize the global aspects of conservation. Scientific knowledge of the interconnections of all life systems and habitats has greatly increased in the last few years and it is becoming increasingly evident that conservation is not only a matter of saving species and habitats but, to be successful, also needs cooperation and a global approach. Zoos and aquariums, because they care for, and have expertise in collections of living animals from around the world, and because of their global network, can play a major role in promoting conservation cooperation on a global scale. Only zoos, aquariums and botanic gardens can operate across the whole spectrum of conservation activities, from ex situ breeding of threatened species, research, public education, training and influencing and advocacy, through to in situ support of species, populations and their habitats; they uniquely have a massive ‘captive audience’ of visitors whose knowledge, understanding, attitude, behaviour and involvement can all be positively influenced and harnessed. They have a huge resource of technical skills and dedicated people. As habitats shrink and collection-managed populations grow, the definition of what is a zoo, what is a botanic garden, what is a reserve, and who is a collection-based conservationist, who is a field-based conservationist, will inevitably blur. Zoos, aquariums and botanic gardens have an opportunity to establish themselves as models of ‘ integrated conservation’ and the means of achieving this in a collective fashion for zoos and aquariums is through the WZACS. Other bodies, such as conservation bodies and governmental departments, can use the WZACS and the integrated conservation approach, and this will bring benefits to all concerned with conservation. |
Box 4 How can we tell if conservation efforts of zoos and aquariums are successful? QUALITATIVE MEASURES THAT INDICATE SUCCESSFUL ACHIEVEMENT OF CONSERVATION
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Box 5 Definition of Conservation Conservation is the securing of long-term populations of species in natural ecosystems and habitats wherever possible. Although the definitions of conservation are many and varied it is crucial to have a common and straightforward definition that everyone understands and uses. The underlined words “natural ecosystems and habitats” signify that no amount of worthy endeavour is of ultimate value if it doesn’t translate into animals and plants surviving in the wild. In addition these wild populations must be able to develop and evolve. From this it follows that we must continually assess and review how successful zoo and aquarium supported conservation programmes are. |
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Mutual trust – |
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Perhaps most important, not only do zoos and aquariums have the ability to become models of ‘ integrated conservation’ , but the fact is, they must. They must change; to be useful, to be proactive, and to be radical in their approach. The world around us has changed immeasurably in the last 10 years, and so must zoos and aquariums and their staff. They can be conservators, educators, scientists and powerful tools for political change if they wish to be. They therefore have a choice – to forge a new identity and purpose or to be left behind by the conservation movement. The WZACS gives zoos and aquariums the map with which to begin this journey, and although some may be further along the way than others, it is time for them all to change from a walk to a run ( Box 6 ). The ‘Pongoland’ of Leipzig Zoo not only combines a research facility with an up-to-date exhibit for Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) and other apes, but also links the ex situ keeping and breeding of the chimps to the in situ conservation efforts of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (WCF) in the Ivory Coast. Through a long-term cooperation contract, the zoo secures the financial support of conservation projects in the Tai National Park . Specific projects aim at creating awareness among the local population for the plight of chimpanzees, which now have become an endangered species. Through entertainment, the visitors of Leipzig Zoo learn about the cooperation projects with the WCF; in parallel, villagers in the chimpanzees’ range are being informed about the conservation activities of Leipzig Zoo and the research in ‘Pongoland’ . WAZA Project Nr. 04020. Photos: Peter Dollinger, WAZA, and Christophe Boesch,Wild Chimpanzee Foundation |
Box 6 The Role and Functions that Characterize a Future Ideal for All Zoos and Aquariums
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Integrating Conservation |
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Summary This chapter explains why and how all zoos and aquariums need to be directly associated with conservation programmes in the wild, and why and how they need to integrate their conservation work with their own organizational activities, internally and externally. Internal integrated conservation activities are those which relate to the way in which a zoo or aquarium is organized and acts in regard to its everyday dealings with visitors. External integrated activities are those which an organization conducts away from its grounds. Both internal and external activities are discussed and listed, and basic strategies are suggested. The emphasis throughout is on collaboration, coordination and communication. |
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Vision The major goal of zoos and aquariums will be to integrate all aspects of their work with conservation activities. The fundamental elements of each organization’s culture will be the values of sustainability and conservation, and social and environmental responsibility. These values will permeate all areas of their work and will be understood and promoted by all those working within the WAZA network. |
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1.1 Introduction Zoos and aquariums began to realize their potential as a positive and influential force for conservation of wildlife as early as the beginning of the 20 th century, and by the 1960s increasingly included conservation as a major part of their overall mission. Throughout the world there are zoos and aquariums, particularly those in WAZA, that play a powerful role in the conservation of biodiversity and they strive to maximize their contribution to global conservation in various ways. The aspiration now of the world zoo and aquarium community is that all its members be directly associated with conservation programmes in the wild and be seen to be involved. No individual zoo or aquarium can contribute to conservation in a meaningful way without integrating conservation into its organizational culture; integrated conservation must be its clear and explicit aim. Integrated conservation is achieved most effectively when all the activities of a zoo or an aquarium are linked to one another conceptually, and are strategically coordinated both externally and internally; their main aim being the conservation of threatened species and the maintenance of healthy ecosystems. The processes of coordination, collaboration and communication should become routine and easy. Thus, integrated conservation includes a set of internal processes by which a zoo tries to manage all its activities and relationships in support of specific and well-defined conservation programmes. Integrated conservation can also serve as a flag under which conservation programmes can be communicated to zoo visitors, supporters, the media and the general public. Integrated conservation activities will vary in different parts of the world because of cultural and social factors and the everyday reality of life. Zoos located within the high biodiversity regions often invest much of their time, energy and financial resources in providing treatment and holding areas for individual, formerly free-ranging, wild animals. These include those animals which come into conflict with people in cities and towns, those which have been intercepted in illegal trade, wild animals taken as pets which have become a burden for their owners, or those which become victims of natural disasters such as floods, fire, or earthquakes, or even those which are lost, have |
strayed or have been stolen. These zoos are often heavily involved in welfare issues and this can affect the way the institution engages in, or even interprets, integrated conservation. Zoos and aquariums around the world can undertake field conservation both in their own country and abroad. Many zoos in Europe and North America do much of their conservation work abroad, particularly in high biodiversity countries, as well as working within their own region, whereas the zoos and aquariums of Australasia, an area that includes some of the hotspots for endemics, collectively directs more conservation resources to within-region projects than to outside-region projects. Many zoos and aquariums in high biodiversity countries such as in Central and South America , Africa , and South and East Asia are still trying to establish their own roles in integrated conservation. These institutions often have significantly larger visitor numbers than zoos elsewhere and these can utilize much of their staff’s work and energy. Such zoos are, however, ideally situated to educate very large numbers of people about their country’s conservation problems and potential. Thus, the notion of integrated conservation may mean different things in different places. There is always potential competition for resources between a zoo’s revenue-producing activities and its conservation desires and needs. A zoo or aquarium which is financially successful will always be able to allocate or raise more money for conservation than a zoo which is struggling to meet its commitments to its own animals, staff and visitors. However, any zoo or aquarium, however small or short of surplus money, can find meaningful ways to contribute to conservation. Ultimately, we would expect that, rather than creating competition, the conservation role of zoos and aquariums will become so well integrated with institutional success that good conservation will actually enhance the institutional budget. The World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WZACS) emphasizes that this document and this chapter apply to all zoos and aquariums, whether rich or poor, of whatever size or administrative conditions and from whatever country or culture. |
1.2 Internal and external integrated conservation |
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Integrated conservation falls into two distinct but related sets of activities, internal and external. Internal activities are those which relate to the way in which an institution organizes itself and acts in regard to its day-to-day visitor-related actions. External activities are those which an institution conducts away from its own grounds. Internal integrated conservation Most zoos and aquariums around the world already perform many activities that would be described as components of internal integrated conservation. Some of these are listed below.
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In future, by adopting a strategy of integrated conservation, zoos and aquariums will also:
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External integrated conservation The WZACS emphasizes that the modern, complex world of conservation has many agendas and many players. No single organization, be it zoo, aquarium, conservation charity or development organization should act alone. Conservation activities should be collaborative, with all the stakeholders working towards the same end, and avoiding competition or exploitation. Conservation-active zoos and aquariums must cooperate proactively with human development agencies, national and international conservation agencies, government departments and local communities, to ensure long-term sustainable solutions. Much conservation activity in the past has failed to take enough account of wider agendas, in particular human development, and this is still of considerable concern. Unlike many conservation organizations, which are not highly visible to the general public, zoos and aquariums, because they are popular visitor attractions, have unique opportunities to introduce their visitors to a wider world and to explain the issues of international conservation. They can greatly enhance visitor awareness of conservation matters, both problems and solutions, by integrating their own work with that of other conservation bodies; by showing evidence of that integration, they become the ‘shop window’. They can also act as physical foci for integrated networks of conservation and development organizations, providing central resources such as meeting and training facilities. Many zoos and aquariums already keep species as part of cooperative and coordinated national, regional or international breeding programmes, collaborating with other zoos and other breeding facilities. |
The pattern of involvement in such programmes varies throughout the world; some regions have well established programmes, while others are only just beginning such work. By adopting a strategy of integrated conservation, zoos and aquariums will also:
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1.3 Conclusion Integrated conservation, as outlined above, is not easy to achieve. However, many zoos and aquariums have begun the process and success is becoming increasingly obvious. |
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Recommendation The World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WZACS) calls on institutions to pursue a strategy of integrated conservation and strive to allocate all their financial and human resources carefully and intelligently, with maximum cohesive and strategic thinking within their own organization, and maximum collaboration with others. This will achieve the greatest sustainable conservation benefit for threatened species, their habitats and their human neighbours. |
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2.1 Introduction The moral obligation of zoos and aquariums to make a direct contribution to conservation in the wild and to be a more potent force for conservation internationally is not a new aspiration. It has however, gained greater momentum in recent times as people have moved from wanting to look at and learn about animals in zoos to wanting to do something about their conservation in the wild as well. Now is the time to move even more strongly toward concerted conservation action, and for zoos and aquariums to expand their support for field conservation activities and develop corresponding systems of accreditation. |
From the outset it is important to acknowledge that zoos and aquariums vary in their capacity to support conservation in the wild. This chapter sets a framework for what can be achieved, singly or in collaborative partnerships. It is not prescriptive, and inevitably different institutions will engage in different activities. Support for conservation in the wild can be through direct action to improve habitats and target species numbers, or indirect action such as education, fund-raising and research to guide policy and practice. These indirect approaches are more fully dealt with in other chapters but are also mentioned briefly below. |
2.2 International context In the introductory sections of the 1993 World Zoo Conservation Strategy (WZCS), the World Conservation Strategy published by IUCN in 1980 was cited as an important framework for looking at conservation action. However, the policy landscape changed when the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The zoo and aquarium world must now consider its conservation proposals and actions in this context, rather than developing zoo-based initiatives which are separated from mainstream conservation efforts. Over 180 countries are signatories to the CBD (www.biodiv.org), which is legally binding and has three goals: conservation of biological diversity; sustainable use of the components of biological diversity; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources (see also Box 3 ). An important point to bear in mind in this international context is that the CBD distinguishes between ‘conservation’ and ‘sustainable use’, which are two separate objectives in the convention, unlike the World Conservation Strategy, where sustainable use was perceived as a part of conservation. |
The CBD is the overarching convention for addressing conservation issues, but there are a number of complementary conventions: the 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (www.ramsar.org), the 1972 World Heritage Convention (www.unesco.org/whc), the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (www.cites.org) and the 1979 Convention on Migratory Species (www.cms.int). These are also important for guiding conservation policy. The move from policy to changes on the ground is brought about through various action plans, in particular regional, national, and local Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPs), which nationally are a requirement under the CBD. Zoos and aquariums can focus their conservation attention on BAP priorities, thereby contributing to wider processes and collaborating with a broader set of partners than those generated by the zoo community alone. Where BAPs are weak, or do not exist, zoos and aquariums can contribute information, ideas and staff to formulate or implement effective BAPs. |
2.3 Development As well as considering the spectrum of conservation action, from global to local, zoos and aquariums need to be aware that achieving effective conservation and sustainable use are only likely to be lasting if programmes are implemented in the context of local cultures, livelihoods and development needs. In broad terms, the United Nations Millennium Development Goals |
Attempting to bridge the conservation and development agendas is a big step, but if it can be done, zoos and aquariums have an opportunity to tap into, or at least influence, hige amounts of official development assistance (often called ‘aid’). Box 2.1 shows two examples, one at the policy level and one in the field, which indicate how this can be done. Other conservation initiatives supported by zoos and aquariums have taken community wildlife management approaches, in an effort to ensure that these stakeholders do not pay disproportionately for international conservation benefits. Where there is strong social cohesion and a capacity for partnership approaches to conservation management, this policy can be effective and long-lasting. |
2.4 Reintroductions and translocations The earliest proposals for conservation of wild populations by zoos were through breeding and reintroduction, building on the successes of breeding American bison, Bison bison, and European wisent, Bison bonasus, at North American and European zoos and wildlife parks respectively. Zoos and aquariums can act as ‘arks’ in which carefully managed populations of animals are bred and the progeny released back into the wild. |
In appropriate circumstances, zoos can provide the necessary animals, skills and knowledge for breeding: identifying breeding stocks (through genetic analysis when necessary); establishing appropriate social units for successful breeding and rearing; attending to behavioural needs; determining diet and welfare standards. By combining these aspects of husbandry, implementing pre-release training and acclimatization, and conducting research to improve breeding and reintroduction success, suitable animals can be provided for reintroduction into the wild. (See also Chapter 9.) |
The spectacular early success of the Arabian oryx Oryx leucoryx restoration programmes in Oman and Saudi Arabia
showed that zoo-bred animals could be released in appropriate wild areas, at appropriate times, and using appropriate release techniques, to build up populations in the wild. As more attempts were made, international standards were developed for best practice in reintroduction projects
(www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/pubs/policy/reinte.htm). However, the simple logic of this approach often belies the complex reality on the ground, and many attempts to reintroduce species into the wild have had limited success and/or been hugely expensive. Some of the obvious limitations relate to animals having to cope with dangers of the wild; clear examples are heavy predation of reintroduced Golden lion tamarins Leontopithecus rosalia and Ruffed lemurs Varecia variegata. Even more complex problems arise when zoo bred chimpanzees Pan troglodytes which have lost their fear of humans are released and then come into conflict with local people – although 17 chimpanzees were released onto Rubondo Island NP in Tanzania during 1966-69 and have since increased to about 50 individuals. Zoos and aquariums need to expand research on methods to improve reintroduction successes. New factors promoting extinction may arise at later stages of re-establishment that were not present or did not need to be prevented earlier on. For example the early success of the Arabian oryx restoration programme in Oman was radically changed by extra-territorial incentives to capture for stocking elsewhere; this could not have been foreseen. Reintroduction projects are not only about the animals being reintroduced but in many cases are a combination of ecological, social, economical and political aspects that all need to be taken into consideration, and over a very long time frame. By not addressing socio-economic aspects and integrating adaptive management into a project, the result in the long term may be frustration and failure. Releasing animals to reduce a zoo surplus, or ostensibly for animal welfare reasons, is more likely to increase disease risks and lead to behavioural and environmental problems with resident animals and vegetation, and other dangers both to humans and animals, than to improve successful conservation of wild populations. Such releases should be limited to occasions when adequate research and precautions have been taken to ensure there will be no adverse impact on existing wild populations or ecosystems. There should also be careful monitoring, post-release, in order to provide sound scientific information which may influence future release attempts. An important activity which uses a number of skills from reintroduction programmes is the translocation of wild animals. This may be done, for example, to reduce conflicts between humans and wildlife where wild animals are killing livestock or people (e.g. tigers, Panthera tigris, in Malaysia ) or destroying property (e.g. African elephants, Loxodonta africana, in Zimbabwe or Botswana ). As habitat |
fragmentation becomes more extreme, and climate change shifts the boundaries and quality of habitats, translocation is likely to become an increasingly important tool for conservation in the wild. The skills and knowledge of trained and experienced zoo and aquarium professionals, as well as other husbandry experts, are needed to guide conservation management agencies in such translocation work. Needless to say, these various efforts will do little to help populations in the wild unless the skills and resources are available to maintain and manage wild populations. All reintroduction and translocation programmes need long-term support in research, time, dedication and money. |
Box 2.1 Bridging the Conservation EAZA Bushmeat Campaign Royal Chitwan National Park |
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2.5 Wildlife health Zoos and aquariums have large numbers of veterinary professionals working with non-domestic animals and these veterinarians can actively contribute to field conservation, as well as building a body of skills and scientific knowledge to aid intervention in the wild. Zoos and aquariums also provide a key resource for training wildlife veterinarians. Veterinary input to reintroduction work involves the treatment and evaluation of diseases and illnesses and the control of parasites and pathogens in zoo and other institute breeding populations, as well as ensuring that there are no disease, stress or injury problems during translocation and release. Between these two steps, wildlife veterinarians also need to carry out health screening of animals before they are reintroduced, to avoid the inadvertent release of parasites and pathogens from breeding centres into wild populations. Wildlife health is also an important issue in the conservation of wild populations. A long-standing problem of rinderpest is described in Box 2.2 . New and emerging diseases are becoming an urgent issue, epitomized by the catastrophic declines in amphibian populations in recent years in at least four continents as a result of attack by a novel pathogenic fungus. Other wildlife health issues also need to be understood. For example, research on the magnificent Steller’s sea-eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus, led by Moscow Zoo, showed how lead shot in carrion was accumulating in the eagles, causing their deaths. The Wildlife Conservation Society in New York is conducting research in central Africa on the Ebola virus, which circumstantial evidence suggests is devastating lowland gorilla and chimpanzee populations. More recently, the abrupt and rapid decline in Asian vulture populations has been ascribed to the use of the drug diclofenac in domestic animals, particularly cattle, whose carcasses are the vultures' main food. |
The link between human and ape health needs even more detailed attention in the light of ecotourism developments. Such developments aim to give greater value to wildlife resources, which might otherwise be destroyed, but also bring tourists into close proximity with animals such as gorillas and chimpanzees. Mountain gorilla tourism is an excellent example of this situation: there is evidence to show that human diseases can be transmitted to wild populations of great apes. Wildlife veterinarians have a key role to play in guiding tourism operations to safeguard wild populations of apes and other species from these risks. |
Box 2.2 Rinderpest A conspicuous example of an imported disease is rinderpest, which was brought into Africa in infected cattle in the 1840s. By the 1890s it had devastated ungulate populations that had evolved in Kenya with no resistance or tolerance to the disease. The initial death toll was hundreds of thousands, with rotting carcasses smelling for months on the East African savannas. These included Serengeti wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus, whose numbers fell to about 300,000. The population only recovered to levels of around 1.5 million in the 1960s, after rinderpest was eradicated in cattle, and consequently in wild ruminants. Rinderpest in wildlife populations needs to be monitored, so that eradication programmes can focus on danger areas, such as the Somali-Kenya border where the endangered Hirola antelope Damaliscus hunteri occurs. |
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2.6 Field conservation units Reintroductions, wildlife health and zoo-based research are, however, insufficient in themselves to achieve lasting conservation in the wild. They can be successful only under limited circumstances, often to rescue a desperate situation, and with variable and uncertain success. They are often very expensive. To become a major force for field conservation, zoos and aquariums will have to create or support field units of conservation professionals. The work of these field staff can vary from short assessment surveys to long-term studies. Small, well-focused surveys and research can be highly effective in identifying problems, starting management processes and encouraging policy change. However these need to be supplemented with long-term research to show how the animals live in the wild, and what threats they and their habitats face. This information will guide the long-term actions of conservation management agencies. |
To take this step, zoos and aquariums will need to invest in recruiting, training and retaining field conservation staff. It is also important that these conservation professionals be versed in social, economic and institutional principles, in addition to having biological knowledge and experience. The scale of the task must be appreciated because lasting conservation outcomes require wildlife rangers and parks staff to be trained and developed, local communities encouraged to participate, and governments and private companies persuaded to give support; this requires the recruitment of, and support for, conservation professionals in the range countries. |
2.7 Funding base To accelerate this change, zoos and aquariums can pool resources, particularly funding, to achieve conservation in the wild, since many may not be able to set up their own ‘field conservation units’. Zoos and aquariums attract over 600 million visitors each year ( www.waza.org ), and often have membership organizations which would together comprise hundreds of thousands of people. This represents a large segment of society concerned about conservation, and it represents an important resource for fund-raising for field conservation. The range of activities and approaches that zoos and aquariums can use to fund field projects is enormous, as are the sums that can be raised. For example, a three-year review of British and Irish zoos (1997–2000) showed that over £5 million was spent by the zoos on field conservation. EAZA annual conservation campaigns (which exclude individual projects) have raised over 250,000 euros each year and Zoos Victoria ( Australia ) directs about A$300,000 per year to field projects. The Wildlife Conservation Society based at Bronx Zoo, NY, disburses about $32 million on insitu conservation projects each year. Sums raised through gate takings can be supplemented through corporate sponsorship and foundation or government grants, which further lift the potential for raising substantial sums for field conservation. |
The extent to which zoos and aquariums fund field conservation varies greatly. Large institutions spend substantial sums, but equally groups of zoos have collaborated to achieve particular conservation aims. For example, a consortium of 39 zoos formed the Madagascar Fauna Group (MFG - www.madagascarfaunagroup.org ), which funds field activities, including conservation education and lemur reintroductions. In 2003, over 120 EAZA zoos, as well as Australasian, Russian and non-EAZA European zoos, joined together to raise funds for nine tiger field projects supported by 21 st Century Tiger. These fund-raising activities are open to zoos of all sizes; the smaller can contribute to larger consortia to ensure that enough funds are raised overall to make a difference on the ground. There is no doubt that by being seen to be actively involved in field conservation, zoos and aquariums will attract a wider donor base. |
| 2.8 Zoo and aquarium site enhancement The importance of zoos as refuges for urban or rural wildlife is often not given a strong focus, yet zoos can be managed to improve habitats for rare species that are not in the collection. By planting hedgerows, leaving ‘weeds’ and rotting wood for insects, making ponds, providing food at key times, and offering protection such as nest boxes for birds and dormice, or roosting boxes for bats, many wild animals can be encouraged. Some of these may be locally or nationally rare, such as House sparrows Passer domesticus at London Zoo, and Bog turtles Clemmys muhlenbergi at Baltimore Zoo. |
Furthermore, zoos and aquariums should make their visitors aware of the conservation actions being carried out, to elicit their support, and to inform them about local wildlife, both plant and animal. |
2.9 Training courses For those zoos and aquariums that plan to support effective conservation in the field, as well as increasing their own ability to conduct surveys and research, and to implement conservation management, there is a need to develop new sets of management skills. Conservation in the wild is generally implemented away from the parent institution, possibly in another country, where it is necessary to work through government agencies, often in another language and with a different culture, and where field staff have to be supported over long distances. There is an ever-present need to train staff from wildlife, forestry, national parks, and zoos and aquariums from countries where training and education resources are scarce, but where many rare plants and animals dwell. Zoos and aquariums can offer ideal training centres for these professionals, with courses specially designed to suit a range of candidates. |
Long-running examples include the Smithsonian Institution’s Conservation and Research Center at Front Royal, Virginia, USA (www.nationalzoo.si. |
2.10 Evaluation There are few published studies to date quantifying the effectiveness of conservation projects supported by zoos and aquariums, or for other kinds of |
conservation organizations, and there is a need for objective methods of assessing the success of such projects. |
2.11 Conclusion Zoos and aquariums are ideally positioned to contribute directly to conservation in the wild, both in their own and other countries, by combining two approaches. First, they are uniquely qualified to provide skills and information in the disciplines of animal husbandry, welfare, breeding, small population management, and wildlife health care. Second, they can implement field projects by working with local partners and with supporting institutions. The unusual integration of these two sets of capacity, expertise and information offers an important opportunity for zoos and aquariums to contribute to conservation in the wild. In summary, zoos and aquariums can take direct action to conserve wild populations through:
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This direct conservation action needs to be complemented and supported by indirect conservation action: research into genetics, physiology, nutrition, behaviour, behavioural ecology, animal welfare and reproduction; fund-raising for field activities; education and raising awareness; and policywork.
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Recommendations The World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WZACS) calls on all zoos and aquariums to increase their work in support of conservation in the wild. The WZACS takes the view that zoos and aquariums, encouraged by WAZA and its regional and national associations, should focus their conservation proposals and actions within local, national, or regional Biodiversity Action Plans and/or similar species recovery programmes. Where these have not been set up or are not effective, their formation should be initiated, supported or strengthened. The WZACS emphasizes that zoos and aquariums must not work independently in reintroduction or translocation programmes but must work with other institutions, and always with the appropriate government authorities, the relevant IUCN/SSC Specialist Groups, and other governmental and non-governmental conservation agencies, particularly those in the host country, and with the relevant national or regional zoo or aquarium associations. The WZACS strongly recommends that where possible zoos and aquariums recruit, train and support conservation staff for work in the wild; the WZACS also applauds those zoos and aquariums that have set up training courses for conservation professionals, and encourages other institutions to consider setting up their own courses or offer assistance to those courses already operating. The WZACS suggests that zoos and aquariums enhance their sites with a view of providing habitats for threatened native species. The WZACS recommends that regional and national zoo associations devote time and money to devising and implementing methods of assessing the success of the conservation contributions being made by their members. |
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Science and Research |
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Summary This chapter presents a vision of zoos and aquariums being serious, respected scientific institutions, integrated into the research community, and making sound scientific decisions for wildlife. It argues that through their living collections, zoos and aquariums are uniquely placed to contribute to conservation-directed research. Additionally they provide a venue for researchers and visitors to meet, thus assisting with the public understanding of science and offering opportunities to raise awareness about research and its conservation implications. Zoos and aquariums can undertake research to further their own as well as others' aims (e.g. by collaboration with universities). Research categories include research into pure and applied biological science (e.g. small population biology, behaviour, nutrition, reproductive biology), in situ conservation research (e.g. behavioural ecology, habitat survey) and research aimed at developing other roles (e.g. visitor learning, marketing, exhibit evaluation). It is argued that all research projects which contribute to conservation should be recorded and the information made broadly and easily accessible. Databases are being developed to assist with this. Zoos and aquariums can develop their research capacity by supporting specific research staff, by developing collaborative partnerships with universities, and by supporting regular publications, symposia and workshops for the presentation and discussion of scientific research. Increasing accessibility of results (to both the academic and zoo and aquarium communities) and sharing techniques and experiences maximize the benefit of research. By encouraging access to their animal collections and materials, zoos and aquariums also help develop the researchers of the future. In conclusion, there is much scope for zoos and aquariums to develop their scientific research to inform decision making within their collections as well as to contribute to field conservation. |
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VisionZoos and aquariums are fully and actively integrated into the research community and into public consciousness and understanding of science, as serious, respected scientific institutions that make significant contributions and sound scientific decisions for wildlife worldwide. |
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